Narrative Reports

SHIPBOARD TRAINING The objective of the shipboard training program is to develop individual skills. It   should   prepare   each person   to   fill   his   billet   aboard   ship,   to   accept   more responsibility,   and   to   advance   in   rating. Individual training is the basis for team training, which is the basis for training an entire ship. The shipboard training program must consider the ship’s organizational framework   Ã‚  and   Ã‚  operating schedules if it is to meet training needs. Personnel must be trained within their shipboard roles so that analysis of training can include the following: 1.Observation of team or group and individual performance 2. Comparison   Ã‚  of   Ã‚  performance   Ã‚  with   Ã‚  standard criteria 3. Recognition   of   methods   for   improvement 4. Attention   Ã‚  to   Ã‚  training   Ã‚  potential   Ã‚  and   Ã‚  the elimination of training paper work In fast changing ship board environment the need of a properly competent seafarer has never been more prominent, there is a growing demand for onboard training services to refresh crew knowledge and verify the safe through training, drills and exercises. On our board training services are design to review familiarization of equipment and assess the emergency preparedness of the crew.Where necessary on board training will consider: 1. Proper use and maintenance of relevant equipment and training material 2. Allocation of duties and responsibilities 3. Procedures and methods of communication. 4. Actions to be taken On the job training or OJT is one method by which students is given a chance to apply the knowledge and skills that they have learned from the school. It also helps the students to acquire relevant knowledge and skills by performing in actual work setting. Colleges and universities require their students to undergo such training within a specific number of hours as part of the curriculum.For the students, an OJT or internship program provides opportunities to go  through  the  actual  methodologies  of  a  specific  job  using  the  real  tools, equipments and documents. In effect, the workplace becomes a development venue for a student trainee to learn more about his chosen field and practice what he has learn from academy. On the  other hand, an effective OJT program also benefits the companies who accept trainees. OJT or intern provides additional manpower for lesser labor cost than a regular employee. OJT’s can bring fresh ideas  into the organization.Given the opportunity to speak  their  minds  freely  and  without  fear,  they  maybe  able  to  contribute significantly in brainstorming sessions or research and eventually help improve the organizations productivity. While training the interns, employers are in fact also teaching their employees to process of guiding the trainees stretches their  patience, dev elops teaching skills and makes them more sensitive to the needs and mind set of the younger generation. The course of supervision also teaches them how to share what they know and be receptive to questions.Hence, the internship also becomes an avenue in training for future managers of the company. Accommodating on-the-job trainees can truly be beneficial not only to the trainees but also to the companies that provide opportunities for this type of  learning. There is wisdom in the front lines. Such training can be an investment that will be valuable to the company later on. This is also why trainees should take their internship seriously as it can become a powerful tool and possibly even a source of recommendation when they take that big lift from being students to career professionals.SuperFerry, founded as  Aboitiz SuperFerry, is a shipping company based in  Manila,Philippines. It is the country’s largest shipping company,with its main hub located in Pier 15 in  Ma nila South Harbor. It has one of the more modern shipping fleets in the Philippines and operates the largest fleet of inter-island vessels in the country. [1] The shipping company was formerly known as  William, Gothong & Aboitiz  (WG&A). Aboitiz bought out the William Lines and Gothong Lines Group. The Gothong Group restarted its own shipping company called Carlos A.Gothong Lines (CAGLI), while the William Group opted to concentrate on its logistics, warehousing, and courier business, called Fast Logistics. Currently, SuperFerry and its sister companies  SuperCat  and  Cebu Ferries  are subsidiaries of the  Aboitiz Group. The Aboitiz group is one of the largest and most diversified corporations in the country with business interests spanning various industries in the Philippines such as power, banking, food production, property development, construction, shipbuilding, and leisure/resort.The Aboitiz name has been synonymous with transport since it purchased its first v essel, the Picket, in 1907. Today, it is the largest inter-island movers of p***engers and cargo in the Philippines. In 2004, we refreshed the SuperFerry brand that would reflect our renewed promise of P***ion for Service. Now, you can enjoy visiting the different island destinations all over the Philippines through a unique sea travel experience that only SuperFerry can deliver with the comforts and convenience of well appointed accommodations and first of its cl*** amenities and facilities onboard.We have 10 vessels: SuperFerry 1, SuperFerry 2, SuperFerry 5, SuperFerry 9, SuperFerry 12, SuperFerry 15, SuperFerry 16, SuperFerry 19, Our Lady of Medjugorje, and Our Lady of Good Voyage. We sail to 18 ports of call all over the Philippines, including Bacolod, Butuan, Ca***an de Oro, Cebu, Coron, Cotabato, Davao, Dipolog, Dumaguete, General Santos, Iligan, Iloilo, Manila, Ozamis, Puerto Princesa, Surigao, Tagbilaran, and Zamboanga.

Foundation and Empire 9. On Trantor

The stars were as thick as weeds in an unkempt field, and for the first time, Lathan Devers found the figures to the right of the decimal point of prime importance in calculating the cuts through the hyper-regions. There was a claustrophobic sensation about the necessity for leaps of not more than a light-year. There was a frightening harshness about a sky which glittered unbrokenly in every direction. It was being lost in a sea of radiation. And in the center of an open cluster of ten thousand stars, whose light tore to shreds the feebly encircling darkness, there circled the huge Imperial planet, Trantor. But it was more than a planet; it was the living pulse beat of an Empire of twenty million stellar systems. It had only one, function, administration; one purpose, government; and one manufactured product, law. The entire world was one functional distortion. There was no living object on its surface hut man, his pets, and his parasites. No blade of grass or fragment of uncovered soil could be found outside the hundred square miles of the Imperial Palace. No fresh water outside the Palace grounds existed but in the vast underground cisterns that held the water supply of a world. The lustrous, indestructible, incorruptible metal that was the unbroken surface of the planet was the foundation of the huge, metal structures that mazed the planet. They were structures connected by causeways; laced by corridors; cubbyholed by offices; basemented by the huge retail centers that covered square miles; penthoused by the glittering amusement world that sparkled into life each night. One could walk around the world of Trantor and never leave that one conglomerate building, nor see the city. A fleet of ships greater in number than all the war fleets the Empire had ever supported landed their cargoes on Trantor each day to feed the forty billions of humans who gave nothing in exchange but the fulfillment of the necessity of untangling the myriads of threads that spiraled into the central administration of the most complex government Humanity had ever known. Twenty agricultural worlds were the granary of Trantor. A universe was its servant. Tightly held by the huge metal arms on either side, the trade ship was gently lowered down the huge ramp that led to the hangar. Already Devers had fumed his way through the manifold complications of a world conceived in paper work and dedicated to the principle of the form-in-quadruplicate. There had been the preliminary halt in space, where the first of what had grown into a hundred questionnaires had been filled out. There were the hundred cross-examinations, the routine administration of a simple Probe, the photographing of the ship, the Characteristic-Analysis of the two men, and the subsequent recording of the same, the search for contraband, the payment of the entry tax – and finally the question of the identity cards and visitor's visa. Ducem Barr was a Siwennian and subject of the Emperor, but Lathan Devers was an unknown without the requisite documents. The official in charge at the moment was devastated with sorrow, but Devers could not enter. In fact, he would have to be held for official investigation. From somewhere a hundred credits in crisp, new bills backed by the estates of Lord Brodrig made their appearance, and changed bands quietly. The official hemmed importantly and the devastation of his sorrow was assuaged. A new form made its appearance from the appropriate pigeonhole. It was filled out rapidly and efficiently, with the Devers characteristic thereto formally and properly attached. The two men, trader and patrician, entered Siwenna. In the hangar, the trade ship was another vessel to be cached, photographed, recorded, contents noted, identity cards of passengers facsimiled, and for which a suitable fee was paid, recorded, and receipted. And then Devers was on a huge terrace under the bright white sun, along which women chattered, children shrieked, and men sipped drinks languidly and listened to the huge televisors blaring out the news of the Empire. Barr paid a requisite number of iridium coins and appropriated the uppermost member of a pile of newspapers. It was the Trantor Imperial News, official organ of the government. In the back of the news room, there was the soft clicking noise of additional editions being printed in long-distance sympathy with the busy machines at the Imperial News offices ten thousand miles away by corridor – six thousand by air-machine – just as ten million sets of copies were being likewise printed at that moment in ten million other news rooms all over the planet. Barr glanced at the headlines and said softly, â€Å"What shall we do first?† Devers tried to shake himself out of his depression. He was in a universe far removed from his own, on a world that weighted him down with its intricacy, among people whose doings were incomprehensible and whose language was nearly so. The gleaming metallic towers that surrounded him and continued onwards in never-ending multiplicity to beyond the horizon oppressed him; the whole busy, unheeding life of a world-metropolis cast him into the horrible gloom of isolation and pygmyish unimportance. He said, â€Å"I better leave it to you, doc.† Barr was calm, low-voice. â€Å"I tried to tell you, but it's hard to believe without seeing for yourself, I know that. Do you know how many people want to see the Emperor every day? About one million. Do you know how many he sees? About ten. We'll have to work through the civil service, and that makes it harder. But we can't afford the aristocracy.† â€Å"We have almost one hundred thousand.† â€Å"A single Peer of the Realm would cost us that, and it would take at least three or four to form an adequate bridge to the Emperor. It may take fifty chief commissioners and senior supervisors to do the same, but they would cost us only a hundred apiece perhaps. I'll do the talking. In the first place, they wouldn't understand your accent, and in the second, you don't know the etiquette of Imperial bribery. It's an art, I assure you. Ah!† The third page of the Imperial News had what he wanted and he passed the paper to Devers. Devers read slowly. The vocabulary was strange, but he understood. He looked up, and his eyes were dark with concern. He slapped the news sheet angrily with the back of his hand. â€Å"You think this can be trusted?† â€Å"Within limits,† replied Barr, calmly. â€Å"It's highly improbable that the Foundation fleet was wiped out. They've probably reported that several times already, if they've gone by the usual war-reporting technique of a world capital far from the actual scene of fighting. What it means, though, is that Riose has won another battle, which would be none-too-unexpected. It says he's captured Loris. Is that the capital planet of the Kingdom of Loris?† â€Å"Yes,† brooded Devers, â€Å"or of what used to be the Kingdom of Loris. And it's not twenty parsecs from the Foundation. Doc, we've got to work fast.† Barr shrugged, â€Å"You can't go fast on Trantor. If you try, you'll end up at the point of an atom-blaster, most likely.† â€Å"How long will it take?† â€Å"A month, if we're lucky. A month, and our hundred thousand credits – if even that will suffice. And that is providing the Emperor does not take it into his head in the meantime to travel to the Summer Planets, where he sees no petitioners at all.† â€Å"But the Foundation-â€Å" â€Å"-Will take care of itself, as heretofore. Come, there's the question of dinner. I'm hungry. And afterwards, the evening is ours and we may as well use it. We shall never see Trantor or any world like it again, you know.† The Home Commissioner of the Outer Provinces spread his pudgy hands helplessly and peered at the petitioners with owlish nearsightedness. â€Å"But the Emperor is indisposed, gentlemen. It is really useless to take the matter to my superior. His Imperial Majesty has seen no one in a week.† â€Å"He will see us,† said Barr, with an affectation of confidence. â€Å"It is but a question of seeing a member of the staff of the Privy Secretary.† â€Å"Impossible,† said the commissioner emphatically. â€Å"It would be the worth of my job to attempt that. Now if you could but be more explicit concerning the nature of your business. I'm willing to help you, understand, but naturally I want something less vague, something I can present to my superior as reason for taking the matter further.† â€Å"If my business were such that it could be told to any but the highest,† suggested Barr, smoothly, â€Å"it would scarcely be important enough to rate audience with His Imperial Majesty. I propose that you take a chance. I might remind you that if His Imperial Majesty attaches the importance to our business which we guarantee that he will, you will stand certain to receive the honors you will deserve for helping us now.† â€Å"Yes, but-† and the commissioner shrugged, wordlessly. â€Å"It's a chance,† agreed Barr. â€Å"Naturally, a risk should have its compensation. It is a rather great favor to ask you, but we have already been greatly obliged with your kindness in offering us this opportunity to explain our problem. But if you would allow us to express our gratitude just slightly by-â€Å" Devers scowled. He had heard this speech with its slight variations twenty times in the past month. It ended, as always, in a quick shift of the half-hidden bills. But the epilogue differed here. Usually the bills vanished immediately; here they remained in plain view, while slowly the commissioner counted them, inspecting them front and back as he did so. There was a subtle change in his voice. â€Å"Backed by the Privy Secretary, hey? Good money!† â€Å"To get back to the subject-† urged Barr. â€Å"No, but wait,† interrupted the commissioner, â€Å"let us go back by easy stages. I really do wish to know what your business can be. This money, it is fresh and new, and you must have a good deal, for it strikes me that you have seen other officials before me. Come, now, what about it?† Barr said, â€Å"I don't see what you are driving at.† â€Å"Why, see here, it might be proven that you are upon the planet illegally, since the Identification and Entry Cards of your silent friend are certainly inadequate. He is not a subject of the Emperor.† â€Å"I deny that.† â€Å"It doesn't matter that you do,† said the commissioner, with sudden bluntness. â€Å"The official who signed his Cards for the sum of a hundred credits has confessed – under pressure – and we know more of you than you think.† â€Å"If you are hinting, sir, that the sum we have asked you to accept is inadequate in view of the risks-â€Å" The commissioner smiled. â€Å"On the contrary, it is more than adequate.† He tossed the bills aside. â€Å"To return to what I was saying, it is the Emperor himself who has become interested in your case. Is it not true, sirs, that you have recently been guests of General Riose? Is it not true that you have escaped from the midst of his army with, to put it mildly, astonishing ease? Is it not true that you possess a small fortune in bills backed by Lord Brodrig's estates? In short, is it not true that you are a pair of spies and assassins sent here to – Well, you shall tell us yourself who paid you and for what!† â€Å"Do you know,† said Barr, with silky anger, â€Å"I deny the right of a petty commissioner to accuse us of crimes. We will leave.† â€Å"You will not leave.† The commissioner arose, and his eyes no longer seemed near-sighted. â€Å"You need answer no question now; that will be reserved for a later – and more forceful – time. Nor am I a commissioner; I am a Lieutenant of the Imperial Police. You are under arrest.† There was a glitteringly efficient blast-gun in his fist as he smiled. â€Å"There are greater men than you under arrest this day. It is a hornet's nest we are cleaning up.† Devers snarled and reached slowly for his own gun. The lieutenant of police smiled more broadly and squeezed the contacts. The blasting line of force struck Devers' chest in an accurate blaze of destruction – that bounced harmlessly off his personal shield in sparkling spicules of light. Devers shot in turn, and the lieutenant's head fell from off an upper torso that had disappeared. It was still smiling as it lay in the jag of sunshine which entered through the new-made hole in the wall. It was through the back entrance that they left. Devers said huskily, â€Å"Quickly to the ship. They'll have the alarm out in no time.† He cursed in a ferocious whisper. â€Å"It's another plan that's backfired. I could swear the space fiend himself is against me.† It was in the open that they became aware of the jabbering crowds that surrounded the huge televisors. They had no time to wait; the disconnected roaring words that reached them, they disregarded. But Barr snatched a copy of the Imperial News before diving into the huge barn of the hangar, where the ship lifted hastily through a giant cavity burnt fiercely into the roof. â€Å"Can you get away from them?† asked Barr. Ten ships of the traffic-police wildly followed the runaway craft that had burst out of the lawful, radio-beamed Path of Leaving, and then broken every speed law in creation. Further behind still, sleek vessels of the Secret Service were lifting in pursuit of a carefully described ship manned by two thoroughly identified murderers. â€Å"Watch me,† said Devers, and savagely shifted into hyperspace two thousand miles above the surface of Trantor. The shift, so near a planetary mass, meant unconsciousness for Barr and a fearful haze of pain for Devers, but light-years further, space above them was clear. Devers' somber pride in his ship burst to the surface. He said, â€Å"There's not an Imperial ship that could follow me anywhere.† And then, bitterly, â€Å"But there is nowhere left to run to for us, and we can't fight their weight. What's there to do? What can anyone do?† Barr moved feebly on his cot. The effect of the hypershift had not yet worn off, and each of his muscles ached. He said, â€Å"No one has to do anything. It's all over. Here!† He passed the copy of the Imperial News that he still clutched, and the headlines were enough for the trader. â€Å"Recalled and arrested – Riose and Brodrig,† Devers muttered. He stared blankly at Barr. â€Å"Why?† â€Å"The story doesn't say, but what does it matter? The war with the Foundation is over, and at this moment, Siwenna is revolting. Read the story and see.† His voice was drifting off. â€Å"We'll stop in some of the provinces and find out the later details. If you don't mind, I'll go to sleep now.† And he did. In grasshopper jumps of increasing magnitude, the trade ship was spanning the Galaxy in its return to the Foundation.

Moral Relativism Essay

At first glance, moral relativism appears to be an appealing, well though out philosophical view. The truth of moral judgments is relative to the judging subject or community. The basic definition of moral relativism is that all moral points of view are equally valid; no single person’s morals are any more right or wrong than any other person’s. As you look closer at the points that moral relativists use to justify their claims, you can plainly see that there are, more often than not, viable objections that can be made against the moral relativist’s arguments. Moral, or ethical, relativism is made up of two types of relativism: cultural and individual relativism. Cultural relativism says that right and wrong, good and evil, are relative to a culture, to a way of life that is practiced by a whole group of people. Individual relativism says that right and wrong, good and evil, are relative to the preferences of an individual. Cultural and individual relativism support the claim that there are no â€Å"universal moral truths† in the world. Universal moral truths are morals that apply to all societies and cultures. I believe that morality is relative to culture simply since our morals develop from the surroundings in which we are raised. Our parents, culture and societal experiences build our individual views on what is moral and immoral. Perceptions are formed through example, especially when we are children as we learn what is right and wrong through our parents and how they react to situations. The theory behind ethical relativism states that ethical standards are not concrete for all societies and times, but rather are relative to the standards of individual societies and time periods. I disagree with this theory because societies should be judged by their moral beliefs on the foundations that time doesn’t change what is morally right and wrong and their should be more emphasis based on the individual rights as opposed to respecting the morals of that individual’s society. Allowing us, as a society, to say that a time or a location makes any ethical belief or theory practiced by the masses of that time/place right and that should be respected by people of other cultures is ignorant. There are a set of universal rights all human beings should enjoy no matter the location or time period, and those cultures that violate these rights shouldn’t be embraced for being different but rather shunned upon for not recognizing the universal basic rights of the indi vidual, despite the fact that it is hard to say what are ALL of these basic human rights. Ethical relativism places more emphasis on the society and not enough on the individual of that society. For example lets say that in some imaginary culture it is perfectly normal to kill or maim people if they annoy you. Ethical relativism says that being of a culture where this is not an accepted practice I cannot say that this is wrong, rather I must respect their culture thereby placing more emphasis on respecting a culture then the rights of the individuals to life no matter how annoying they happen to be. In a system where everything is relative there can be no set ethical belief because then no one is bound by any universal set code of ethics. Nothing is ever immoral since actions can’t be compared to a standard and thus nothing is immoral and nothing is moral. Societies should be judged by their moral beliefs because time and place doesn’t change what is morally right and wrong and more emphasis should be given to the individual rather than to the society. Ethical relativism contradicts the point of ethical theory in that there is no universal standards therefore n o action is moral, and vice versa no action is immoral. Society defines what is moral at a certain point in time. Morality is adaptive and can change over time, however it is still dependent upon its culture to decide whether it is accepted or not accepted. For example, in the early twentieth century, pre-marital sex was considered a huge sin and looked down upon with disgrace. A person’s entire character was jeopardized if they had participated in pre-marital sex. Today however, although pre-marital sex is not considered virtuous, society does not cast aside those who have sex before marriage. It is considered normal as a matter of fact to have several partners before marriage, that is, if you even decide to get married (another topic that has lost importance over time). Benedicts also gives an example to further prove her point that morality and or normality is culturally relative. She gives the example of a man in a Melanesian society who was referred to as â€Å"silly and simple and definitely crazy† because he liked to share and to help people and do nice things for them. In the United States, these are virtuous qualities. If you are stingy and not helpful you are looked down upon, but in this contrasting society, to share and be helpful is so disgraceful that one is ridiculed for possessing those traits or even condemned for them. One who believes that morality is relative could give further example of traits that are despised in one culture but admired in a different culture. History and evolution provide codes of what is accepted in a culture, things such as sorcery, homosexuality, polygamy, male dominance, euthanasia, these things are completely dependent upon its society to define its morality. Within this world that we live on, there is an enormous amount of people. Each of these people belongs to different cultures and societies. Every society has traits and customs that make it unique. These societies follow different moral codes. This means that they may have different answers to the moral questions asked by our own society. What I am trying to say is that every society has a different way of analyzing and dealing with life’s events, because of their cultural beliefs. This claim is known as Cultural Relativism. Cultural Relativism is the correct view of ethics. (a) Different societies have different moral codes. (b) There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code better than another. (c) The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is merely one among many. (d) There is no â€Å"universal truth† in ethics-that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times (e) The moral code of a society deter mines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society. (f) It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other peoples. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance toward the practices of other cultures (Pojman). Above are six claims that help explain the notion of Cultural Relativism. In Rachel’s article, the Eskimos practice infanticide as well as the killing of elders. The elders are too feeble to contribute to the group but; they still consume precious food, which is scarce. This practice is necessary for the survival of the group. The males within the Eskimo tribes have a higher mortality rate because they are the hunters and food providers. The killing of female infants helps keep the necessary equilibrium for the survival of the group. So, this infanticide and killing of elders does not signal that Eskimos have less compassion for their children, nor less respect for human life; it is merely recognition that murder is sometimes needed to ensure that the Eskimos do not become culturally extinct (Pojman). To continue with the subject of murder, there are many questions about murder that our own society faces. Within our own society there are conflicting views on topics such as abortion, capital punishment and, euthanasia. To some these acts are considered to be murder, to others they are necessary to our society. The point of this conflict is that even within our own society, there is a discrepancy between what is morally right or wrong. There is an exception to every so-called moral absolute. This eliminates the possibility of Moral Absolutism, and proves there is no universal truth (Pojman).Ruth states that homosexuals deal with many conflicts that are culturally based (Pojman). For example, in our western society, the Catholic religion believes that is a sin for individuals to partake in homosexual activity. By this I mean, the tendency toward this trait of homosexuality in our culture exposes these individuals to all the conflicts that coincide with this choice of lifestyle. Some of these conflicts include hate groups that partake in â€Å"gay bashing†, public ridicule and even laws against homosexuals taking wedding vows. This differs from what Ruth explains about how in American Indian tribes there exists the institution of the berdache (Pojman). These are men who, after puberty, take up the dress and occupations of women and even marry other men. These individuals are considered to be good healers and leaders in women’s groups. In other words, they are socially placed and not ridiculed by other members of their society. This is an example of how different societies have different moral codes. Ruth states within her article how every society integrates itself with a chosen basis and disregards itself with behavior deemed uncongenial (Pojman). This means societies will choose their own moral standards and ethical codes and, disregard actions that do not lie within the boundaries of these moral standards and ethical codes. She goes on to say that our moral codes are not formed by our inevitable constitution of human nature. We recognize that morality differs in every society. Our own culture and environment will dictate these codes. This explains why different people have different moral standards, because behavior is culturally institutionalized.

Middle east and international relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Middle east and international relations - Essay Example On the other hand, Efraim and Karsh comment that the debate regarding Arab nationalism as a model of homogenous states bound by common language, religion and history has â€Å"dominated Middle Eastern political discourse for the most part of this century† (1996). However, they highlight that regardless of the concept of Arab nationalism in academic rhetoric; Arab nationalism has not succeeded in achieving the goal of unifying the â€Å"Arab† nation under a model of pan-Arabism. Moreover, Biersteker and Weber highlight that in terms of Arab nationalism the central issue in Arab states is â€Å"whether Arab nationalism was or was not consistent with state sovereignty and the territorial legacy† (1996, p149). Additionally, Biersteker and Weber refer to the argument that 1967’s turning point led to Arab recognition of state sovereignty, thereby dispelling pan-Arabism and replacing the state versus nation conflict (1996,p.149). In turn, the fragmentation of various ethno-cultural groups within these states has led to a dichotomy between political state identity and national identity. For example, Rinawi refers to the example of Operation Iraqi Freedom as crystallising the distinction between sovereignty and pan Arabism, whereby with â€Å"this event the divide between the pan-Arabic and specific localised Arab agendas became apparent† (2006, p.xxi). This is further evidenced by the growing role and influence of Iran in the area as a result of the destabilisation of Iraq under Operation Iraqi Freedom, which has been of increasing concern to the US and Europe (Potemski, 2007). Accordingly, it is submitted that the central issues relating to the Middle East in context of the contemporary framework of international relations is the complex relationship between nationalism and identity in the Arab states, the terrorism phenomenon and the growing influence of Iran in the area.

International Business Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

International Business Strategy - Essay Example also factors related to consumer viewpoint in their willingness to sample new products with unknown new competitive players, based also on their traditional cultural values. These factors need to be considered prior to entering Spain as a viable profit opportunity. However, evidence provides that the growth rates in Spain associated with consumer willingness to purchase mobile products makes this a quality opportunity if new methods to undercut these values can be accomplished through marketing or other innovative communications methods. Spain represents a tremendous new market opportunity that is marked with sustained growth, despite problems that exist in labour shortages and the presence of a highly regulated labour market. It is recommended to pursue this strategy of expansion into the Spanish marketplace and improve long-term manufacturing and R&D capabilities in the process. Tiko Mobile Technology Limited is a mobile manufacturing product located in Cairo, Egypt. Tiko began manufacturing Network products in 1988 and produces its first mobile phone in 2002. Since then, Tiko Mobile Technology Ltd has produced many models that have faired well in most countries. Tiko has its own SMT line, R&D centre and Assembly Line that have been instrumental to its success in maintaining and cultivating long-term business relationships. The core business activities of the company include ODM (Original Design Manufacturing) and OEM and (Original Equipment Manufacturing) of mobile phones. Its brand name is TAMGO and has 485 employees. Its Annual Sales translates to $850,000 with an OEM capability of 160,000 per month. Currently, it has two major mobile phone products which include 3G mobile phones and GSM phones. Tiko believes in acting for better communication around the globe and for this, the company has invested in Assets and Human resource in order to give its client s the individual care needed. They believe in letting the client specify his unique needs and carefully

Chinese classical poetry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chinese classical poetry - Essay Example So Zhang writes her two poems explaining his feelings. Ying-yings response seems to suggest that he should sneak in at night and visit her, but when he does she yells at him, rebuking him for being so selfish and so uncaring about other peoples lives. She tells him he should be ashamed and tells him he should not "sink to the point where you molest people," which she says he has done with his poetry (543). For some reason, though, Ying-ying then decides to go to his house and sleep with him. The reasons for this are not entirely clear, unless she has actually fallen in love with him through his poetry despite her harsh words the night before. It might also have something to do with the intent of the story on the authors behalf, since at the end of it he claims that women are full of lust and "will inevitably cast a curse on others if they dont do the same to themselves" (548). So it seems that Zhang is completely uncaring about Ying-yings fate, and strangely he seems to think that he is the victim, not her. Despite all these attempts to snub Ying-ying and oppress her, she does get the last laugh and ultimately maintains control over her own life. In her final letter to Zhang she sends him three objects which, although she claims they will represent her love and her good wishes for Zhang, actually seem to be rebuking him again. She says that the jade ring is supposed to teach the lesson of "what is firm and lustrous," and we have seen that Zhang is not this and Ying-ying is (546). The other two items she sends also represent her own feelings and seem to insult him for his lack of care for others. After the letter a year passes and both of them marry someone else. This suggests that Ying-ying was actually not all that upset and managed to move on with her life. However, when Zhang tries to see her and she refuses he is upset and it

Changes that Women Have Undergone through the Years Term Paper

Changes that Women Have Undergone through the Years - Term Paper Example The question raising the issues then is that of how are they able to perform all the responsibilities that shape their existence within the society and their role as glue-holders of their families. As earlier mentioned, there are numerous women who are known for social service that actually affects the development of the entire human communities today (Anderson, 2003, 15). Among the said women are Hillary Clinton and the late Mother Theresa. There are still others, however, their names are too numerous to be listed herein. However, no matter how individually different they may be, they all have the same performing practices in terms of facing the responsibilities that they have upon the society's values and their own aspirations in making great changes in life. (Anderson, 2003, 14) Women are traditionally known to have a responsibility of giving care to their homes, their families. It has always been an accepted idea with regards the role of women that they are supposed to prioritize their families since this is the main responsibility that identifies their being. However, as years advance, the role of women in society also expands. Now, they do not simply stay inside the four walls of their homes. They are now able to take employment outside their homes and they are even able to take responsibilities in the political positions at present. It could not be denied too that even though women are given larger chances of making changes today, they are still able to do all the responsibilities that they are primarily appointed with by womanhood itself (Cantarow, 1980, 13). However, it is undeniable too that most of the women who are working for the society who immediately become social images are noted for their capability of primarily coming up with the possibiliti es of performing their social responsibilities.

The pianist of willesden lane Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

The pianist of willesden lane - Movie Review Example This is exactly same to Jura’s days in London. The director’s message in the play is how music communicates the past and more so the feeling of dismay. Over and above, the information extends to show how great music can cheer someones sad, hard and lonely moment just like the one Jura found herself. This essay analyzes the impact of music in solving various societal ups and downs. In many approaches, the simple behaves of Golabek being seated at the Steinway keyboard that Royal George Live theater is an ideal declaration of the play's main message. This is enough to create the oral cavity area drop wondering about how the world can frustrate. By viewing, this middle-aged lady's arms proceed with service of the development of wonderful songs, the forfeit of her grandma and grandpa are made reveal. Nazis being successful neither in eliminating these close relatives nor its achieved art, did not deter the inheritance of the skill by the next generation. Finally, the Nazi r egime passes and The piano enjoying continues. It is all set out before attendance in the most instantaneous, theatrical way (Golabek 23-30). One of the main themes on how music solves a societal problem is on the reduction of diseases related to boredom. Notably, hard economic moments have compelled people to spend more time working to bridge their problems. As a result, they spend several hours behind closed office doors. This is not healthy for the brain since it tends to be overworked. Additionally, the boredom comes in, and it can reduce the productivity of an individual. To solve this, contemporary offices are fitted with music system where employees at wish can listen during work. Notably, this has created stronger unity in open layout offices because at some point employee are attracted in discussing the music. As a matter of facts, this was eminent at some point where the audience joined in the singing (Golabek 43-57). Another theme that is communicated by the music is pass ion. Passion can be for someone or something. In this case, Juras’ passion was to become a prominent pianist, which was supported by her family. The parent made sure she was far away from timid Nazi’s regime through the Kinder transport program. In real life situations, super achievers have made it with the guidance of passion. For instance, Mandela’s passion to liberate his countrymen made him fear nothing including twenty seven years jail term. The outcome of his dedication was freedom to South Africans. Another case is eminent in sports. Diego Maridona had a passion for football. His passion for the game made him rose to become one of the best world players at some point in his career. He did all within his ability to emerge the best by even scoring a world cup championship goal by hand. It, therefore, is clear that passion should drive every undertaking (Golabek 134-146). The framed picture hung in the blue stage during the play depicts the theme of the hist orical moment. They emphasize that the occurrence was back in gone days. In the picture, it is seen that there is some audience listening to a performance in some old school fashion wears. The instrumentals in the big oval frame are old times instruments. Another theme depicted by the dim stage setup is the struggle. This is true because, at some point, the light goes out completely. Light is a symbol of good things because through it safely is assured. Therefore,

Stress Management in Law Enforcement Research Paper

Stress Management in Law Enforcement - Research Paper Example Objective The Objective of this paper is to look into the importance of stress management in the law enforcement organizations and focus on the implementation techniques by the law enforcement agencies in contrast to the private organizations for managing this menace for their employees’ performance. Methodology Stress Management is quite generic topic which is wide spread over various professions. There is no profession or social activity in which stress is not produced. However there is an interaction among the people and there is a thinking capability of each person that distinguishes one from another, stress is there. Thus in order to approach the purpose of this paper, secondary research data is prominently used. There is a good material available online which needed to be carefully read and understood to extract the findings behind the main topic. Stress Management in law enforcement is interesting in the terms it has grown more important as the criminal activities around the globe are increasing nod thus more accountability surrounds the law enforcement personnel and police officers causing a state of mental stress. In order to find out the implementation activities by law enforcement agencies in order to train their staff to effectively cope up with the stress produced in their daily routine or in the cases of unpredictable incidents is studied through the journals and articles on this topic. As per Law Enforcement Stress Program, topics like anger management, self confidence, self esteem, performance stress; accountability handling and relationship building envelope the overall topic of stress management in law enforcement for which perception based strategies as well as action based strategies are employed. What is Stress? In any field, wherever there is a person to person contact, conflicts are the natural things to happen. People are reluctant to accept other’s opinions and the fact that every person is independent and different in terms of the perspective, he looks towards an issue creates conflicts. These conflicts are the primary reason of mental distress that we refer as stress. Stress keeps the person buy in unwanted distress of mental state and therefore it affects the capability of a person to focus or even think about a particular task. This advisedly affects the performance of a person in any activity he performs. This is also important to note that stress is not just an instantaneous state of the mind. Rather a mind can undergo stress that can affect the mental power and capability to focus for the lifetime. The state of stress keeps a person thinking about some particular issue with no direction and sometime even nothing is under focus but even then the mind is under stress. Mental stress does affect and propagates itself into physical stress too. Hence, a person under stress condition is unable to perform his or her tasks with a value addition input. There are various indications of persons who are under stress. However, these indications may differ from one person to another and also depend upon factors such as internal or external conditions. Some of these internal conditions are psychological pressure, cut-throat competition and incompetency issues. External conditions may be in the form of stressful conversation s with colleagues, bosses,

FIN 370 Week 3 Learning Team Assignment Essay Example for Free

FIN 370 Week 3 Learning Team Assignment Essay Learning Team: Current Market Conditions Competitive Analysis This paper will give a short history and descriptions of Apple’s I Pad minicomputer. It will also give factors that affect demand, supply, and equilibrium prices in the market. Issues that Apple faces that affect its competitiveness will also be addressed. Lastly, this paper will identify the long term profitability of the iPad including, price elasticity of demand, technological innovation, and cost structure. Steven Jobs and Steven Wozniak were friends in high school, which shared like interested in electronics. They designed what would become the Apple and on April 1, 1976, Apple Computer was born. This is an American based company located in California. Apple specializes in design advancing, and the sales electronics, computer software, and computers. Apple is accredited for some of the most popular products of the modern world of technology such as: iPod, iPhone, iPad, and iTunes. Apple has expanded its retail stores to fourteen countries worldwide with 408 retail store not to mention their online stores, Apple Store and iTunes. Apple’s value as of March 2013 is $415 million, and it is the largest most publicly traded companies. The iPad is a tablet designed minicomputer that was released in 2010 by Apple. This device has equipped with Wi-Fi and has a multi- touch screen. There are five different versions of this particular tablet. Each has the capability to play music, record videos, a camera function, browsing the web, e-mailing. Games, GPS navigation system, and social networking can also be downloaded to the device. A market is as a collection of consumers and retailers of a specific merchandise or service. Demand is the actual volume that consumers are prepared and able to obtain. Quantity necessitated is the demand at a specific amount and is symbolized as the demand curve. The supply of a product is the quantity that manufacturers are prepared an d capable to convey to the market the sale of  the product. The market can be analyzed by matching the supply and demand curve. Equilibrium is the connection of supply and demand curves. The equilibrium amount is the amount where the number demanded matches the number supplied. A change in price does not necessarily mean that the demand will change. It is more likely for the quantity demanded will affect the price. If the price is changed the curve will move along the demand curve. When the price is reduced the quantity demand will be increased. When the IPad was released, it was the only product in that market at that time. Therefore, at that time it absolutely controlled the tablet division. Some corporations tried to contend with Apple, but recognized their position just could not compete. The competition combated Apple by creating smaller tablet that is an unfamiliar place for Apple. This creation worked and caused Apple to lose sales. The competitors rapidly established their place in the market. Price elasticity of demand is an issue th at our organization, Apple faces that affects our competitiveness and long-term profitability with regards to the iPad. â€Å"Price elasticity of demand and supply tells us exactly how quantity responds to a change in price. As elasticity increases, quantity responds more to price changes. Demand or supply is elastic, if the percentage change in quantity is greater than the percentage change in price†(University Of Phoenix, 2010, pp. 154-157). After reviewing data, specifically targeted to the three types of iPads; their pricing, capabilities and memory storage, it was determined that if the price of the iPads increased; then the consumers may not purchase them (What Is An Apple Ipad’s Elasticity Of Demand?, 2012). The price elasticity of demand tells us that although apple is very technological innovative, but as it relates to price elasticity of demand; the quantity does not matter (all the changes, modifications, additions, advancements, etc.) consumers will still purchase the cheaper iPad (cost efficient) Apple should not invest in making more iPads. Consumer(s) can’t readily identify / understand the importance /significance of having more capabilities, memory, storage, etc. The consumer(s) would ultimately shop for and purchase the iPad that’s more conducive to their needs. Although apple has is very technological innovative, but as it relates to price elasticity of demand; the quantity does not matter (all the changes, modifications, additions, advancements, etc.) consumers will still purchase the cheaper iPad (cost efficient)  Technological innovation is an opportunity for our organization, (Apple) to face that affects our competitiveness and long-term profitability with regards to the iPad. Through technological innovation our organization will be able to make improvements to something that already exists; such as the Apple iPad. Is the improvement to something that already exists. Technological innovation will always have a huge impact on Apple Corporation. As it directly relates to the iPad, with the technological innovation, we are able to re-invest and re-invent the iPad. As with any product of this magnitude, the cost will increase, more features will be added, more storage, more variability, etc. As long as we are innovative and have a willingness to be creative we will consistently bring new items to the market that will steady intrigue the consumers and adapts to their technological needs. â€Å"Cost Structure (TC = FC + VC) is the costs of production, the identification of how costs associated with the production of a good or service are distributed throughout the process The cost structure consists of fixed costs, variable costs and total cost â€Å" (University Of Phoenix, 2010, pp. 283-285). According to Internal Factors: Costs (n.d.), When analyzing cost, the marketer will consider all costs needed to get the product to market including those associated with production, marketing, distribution and company administration (e.g., office expense). These costs can be divided into two main categories: fixed costs and variable costs†. Fixed costs are costs that are spent and cannot be recovered (rent, credit interest, maintenance costs, security and administrative expenses, often salary). The major factors affecting fixed costs are (1) Changes in business organization, (2) Changes in technology applied, (3) Sale of manufacturing equipment and (3) Decisions to undertake advertising activities, etc. Variable costs are costs that vary with production. Factors affecting variable costs, including productivity and others that change the supply of and demand for labor (internal factors), (1) Involve costs of items that are either components of the product (parts/packaging), (2) Directly associated with creating the product (electricity to run an assembly line), (3) Coupons and (4) Variable costs, especially for tangible products tend to decline as more units are produced. This is due to the producing company’s ability to pu rchase product components for lower prices since component suppliers often provide  discounted pricing for large quantity purchases (). Total cost the sum of all costs of inputs used by a firm in production TC = FC + VC Apple is one of the world’s most admired brands. Every year, as rumors about Apple’s products start to emerge web sites begin to speculate which suppliers are likely to win Apple’s business. Getting a contract from Apple can lift a company’s value by millions of dollars. On October 22 Apple released a variety of new hardware and software. Apple’s new iPad is clearly focusing on improving the iPad product profit margin, while also maintaining it strong market share. One of the ways Apple can maximize their profit is by reducing the price of the original iPad mini. Another recommendation that can maximize the profit for Apple is to also make radical improvements to the full-size iPad and the mini. Apple has four products in the iPad lineup. While Apple decided to keep the price of the iPad 2 at $399 Apple dropped the price of the IPad mini to $299. The newest iPad, the new full-size iPad Air is thinner and lighter than the previous full-size iPads and much more powerful. The new iPad Air will sell at $499, while the second new iPad tablet the iPad mini with Retina display will sale for $399. By Apple dropping the price on the iPad mini this move should help A pple maintain market share with it strong competition. Strong competitors like Google and Amazon have recently dropped the prices on their popular tablets. Android tablets such as Google and the Kindle Fire have been gaining on Apple over the past year with the lower prices and higher performance. The Kindle Fire HD sold for $139, this alone affected Apple’s revenue. The price decrease put Apple’s base iPad mini closer to the price of Google and Amazon’s top of the line tablets. Apple chose to drop the price of the original iPad mini tablets to maximize their profits with the competition. Overall by dropping the price, this will draw more individuals to the Apple iPad mini and increase Apple’s marginal revenues and profitability. This will keep Apple’s market share in competition with Google and Amazon without sacrificing too much profitability. Although, there are several competitors in this market; such as The Kindle Fire, The Windows Tablet, Galaxy Table, etc. none are able to uphold the standards that the iPad will carry. With all of our advancements in technology, research, investments, etc. we continue to be in high demand. If our corporation continues to be technological innovative and productive; then we will continue to grow and  c onsistently re-invent. We will be more profitable, growing and will remain cost efficient; when it comes to manufacturing and producing the iPad. Based on the current market conditions, our competitive market analysis concluded that the Apple iPad will be an extremely productive and very successful. References: Duhigg, C., Barboza, D. (2012, January 25). In, China, Human Cost Are Built Into an IPad, p. The iEconomy. Internal Factors: Costs . (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.knowthis.com/pricing-decisions/internal- factors-costs Reisinger, D. (2013, October 22). IPad 2 Survives iPad Air, Still cost $399. CNET, p. . University Of Phoenix. (2010). Economics, Eight Edition. Retrieved from University Of Phoenix, ECO365 website. What is an Apple iPad’s Elasticity of Demand?. (2012). Retrieved from http://applecoeconomics.wordpress.com/2012/05/17/what-is-an-apple-ipads-elasticity-of-demand-9/

Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol

Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Introduction Government policies and assistance for people who misuse alcohol raise controversial issues for legislators, policymakers and practitioners alike. Goodman (2007) highlights that government policy adopts both a ‘carrot and ‘stick approach. While individuals who misuse substances are encouraged to seek treatment, there is also the threat that for those who choose not to engage in programmes, they run the risk of being targeted if they continue in their addiction. Thus those whose alcohol addiction has caused them to become involved in criminal/illegal activities and who refuse to engage with alcohol interventions face agencies using enforcement and prosecution if they continue with their behaviours. Harm caused by alcohol is Scotlands biggest health challenge. Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action was published to address Scotlands  £2.25 billion alcohol misuse problem. The governments focus is on reducing costs, recovery and making sure that people who need help are identified sooner and directed towards the right services (Scottish Government, 2009). In line with this, there have been significant changes in welfare policies for people who misuse alcohol. There is no clear of the number of people with drug and alcohol problems receiving social work interventions. Research is usually based on specialised practice teams, for example, teams working with children and families. Research suggests that approximately 25 per cent of children on child protection registers involve parental alcohol and or drug use. (Advisory Council on the Misuse of drugs (ACMD) 2003) while Hayden (2004) points out that higher estimates have been found among children and families services more broadly. Further research highlights that drug and alcohol misuse is prevalent with the many groups of people social workers often work with, for example, 44 per cent of people with mental ill health use substances in harmful or hazardous ways (Weaver et al, 2003) and among young people aged 14-15, research has shown that drinking alcohol is a regular occurrence (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). Gender is also an important area in the field of substance misuse with rese arch showing that it is often thought for it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man (Sandmaier, 1992). It would appear that the experience of alcohol abuse may be different for a man and a woman. My interest in addictions developed whilst on placement with a voluntary organisation working with young people involved with offending and/or anti social behaviour. The placement demonstrated the increase in the extent to which drug and alcohol use influences the involvement of young people in offending (Rutter et al, 1998). An opportunity whilst on a mental health placement to work with a woman experiencing severe emotional, behavioural and financial difficulties who was alcohol dependent alerted me to the profound effects of addiction, the effect of proposed policy changes and to some of the difficulties experienced whilst working with this client group. By 2009, the harm caused by alcohol and the cost to UK society had become a topical debate. Current downturns in the UK economic climate coupled with large number of economically inactive individuals and an increase in worklessness created much cause for concern. It was decided to focus this study on alcohol dependent service users in light of the new legislation in the UK which aimed to support individuals with health difficulties in getting back to work. Aims of the Research This research aim is to explore the experiences and perceptions of front line workers regarding the implication of the new Employment and Support Allowance for people who misuse alcohol and the implications this has for social work practice and will broadly cover issues such as: What difference, if any, has the introduction of the new Employment and Support Allowance made to work carried out with alcohol dependent service users? Should the implementation of this Allowance be subject to specific conditions? What is the experiences of working with alcohol dependent service users? Outline of the dissertation A review of the relevant literature is presented in chapter two in order to set the study in its legal, political and practice context. The approach and methods used to collect the data will be explored in chapter three. Chapter four presents and discusses the findings and chapter five presents the final analysis, draws some conclusions and makes some suggestions for future practice and research. All names including the name of the organisation in which the research is based have been changed in accordance with confidentiality agreements. Chapter 1 Literature Review INTRODUCTION This literature review is divided into four sections. Section one addresses, understandings of alcohol abuse. Political responses to alcohol abuse is the focus of section two. Section three explores the reasons for change and section four discusses practice issues, challenges and dilemmas. The terms alcohol addiction, alcoholism, and alcohol dependence have the same meaning. No one term is more serious than the other. Different terms have evolved over the years to overcome the negative stigma of addiction. Some people are not addicted to drugs or alcohol, but abuse them. The American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) uses specific criteria over a 12 month period to differentiate between dependence and abuse. If an individual fulfils the criteria for substance dependency then a diagnosis of substance abuse does not apply (Petersen McBride, 2002). For the purpose of this research, the term alcohol abuse will be used to describe individuals who abuse alcohol as well as those who are categorised as alcohol dependent. SECTION 1 Understandings of alcohol abuse The use of alcohol is long standing within Western culture. As the research has a focus on alcohol abuse, consideration must be given to the reasons why such a growth in excessive drinking emerged. The social changes stemming from the industrial revolution are therefore significant. Previous to these, ideas centred on the view that human beings were thought to be rational and exercised free will in relation to self enjoyment. Individuals were seen to exercise choice; â€Å"Drunkenness was a choice, albeit a sinful one, which some individuals made.† (Levine, 1978, p146) The movement of people from rural to urban areas because of the need for organised labour together with the growth in population meant that there were significantly high concentrations of people. Social problems emerged on an exceptional scale with excessive alcohol consumption and related safety at work issues causing great public concern. Problems relating to alcohol abuse thus became more socially significant. Many theories exist in relation to understanding the causes of alcohol abuse. Early explanations to problems with substance misuse focused on moral issues and the idea that alcohol consumption and ungodliness were linked. Individuals who had problems with drink were viewed as being ‘weak willed or ‘sinful with ‘treatment focusing on punishment or religious conversion (Petersen McBride, 2002, p34*). During the nineteenth century, scientific explanations began to emerge in relation to understanding the spread of excessive drinking behaviour in society; this was the first time that the idea of alcoholism as a disease was considered (Collins, 1990). Applying such a medical analysis allowed for a new awareness, understanding and even sympathetic attitude towards alcohol consumption and its related problems. Pressure on the State to ensure that alcoholism was recognised as a disease which required specific medical attention was now evident. Petersen McBride (2002) highlight that substance use is different from dependence or addiction. When a person tries a substance once or for the first few times, it is seen as ‘experimental. Substance misuse can also be ‘recreational meaning a person may misuse a substance, for example, alcohol, occasionally or on a social basis. The individual is seen as ‘dependent if they have developed a dependent pattern on a substance and misuse it continually. Critics argue that the disease approach focuses the attention only on the dependent problem drinker, the drinker who is experiencing severe physical and social consequences. Problems can occur at any of these stages with different interventions available, for example, the ‘disease model supports the argument for total abstinence and is broadly supported by Alcoholics Anonymous. However this model will not work for everyone. Alternatively, models which focus on harm reduction through controlled drinking, for example , the ‘wheel of change model, are also accepted within drug and alcohol services (Goodman, 2007). Difficulties arise when categorising individuals and in relation to the language used; for example what constitutes recreational use? What is the difference between dependence and addiction? The language used within alcohol literature varies greatly. It is possible for someone to be in all three stages at once; for example someone who is dependent on alcohol may recreationally misuse cannabis. There appears to be a move away from socially constructed terms such as addiction, with research highlighting that terms such as ‘addict or ‘alcoholic carry with them a negative connation and are powerful labels. Goodman (2007) points out that it is better to call a person drug dependent, where the dependency is the compulsion to keep taking drugs. There is no one clear definition of alcohol abuse as a disease. Kessel Walton (1989) highlight that ‘alcoholism is a difficult subject to study and alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. Defining what constitutes an ‘alcoholic and what constitutes a ‘non-alcoholic is difficult. Collins (1990) highlights that; â€Å"It is now accepted that problem drinking exists on a continuum, with normal or non-problem drinking at one end and severe dependence at the other† (Collins, 1990, p49*) Developments in research into dependency have led to risk factors such as stress, social environment, emotional health, genetic predisposition, age, and gender being identified. For example, studies have shown that children born from alcohol dependent parents who are adopted into families with no dependency issues are at greater risk of becoming alcohol dependent than the rest of the population. This would suggest that there is some genetic predisposition to alcohol dependence. Children born and raised by alcohol dependent parents have an even greater rate of becoming alcohol dependent, although here learnt behaviour may also be a factor (ref). Psychological theories such as Social Learning Theory relate behaviour to processes that take place within the individuals mind rather than the physical structure of the brain. Behaviour is believed to be conditioned by the expectations of the individual in carrying out a particular action, for example, immediate short term effects of alcohol can create feelings of enjoyment or eliminate unpleasant withdrawals. In the long term the advantages of stopping may be less rewarding than the short term gratification of prolonged misuse. Certain studies question the idea of rewarded behaviour and that addiction is a consequence. Chein (1964) found that when normal subjects were given narcotics, although they found the experience pleasurable, they did not become compulsive drug users, suggesting that drugs are not inherently rewarding as Social Learning Theory purports. Furthermore, it was found that a percentage of people who developed dependencies became dependent anyway despite having found the initial drug experience unpleasant. Regardless of these concerns, the conditioning model is well supported and highlights once again that addictive behavior is complex and difficult to place into a single model. Social Learning theory is helpful in explaining the differences in social attitudes to alcohol abuse in women. Sandmaier (1992) surveyed attitudes towards alcohol abuse among four hundred women and men of varying socioeconomic classes, ethnicity and age in the United States and found that the majority thought it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man. Labelling someone as an ‘alcoholic can be stigmatising and affect an individuals self-efficacy and self-esteem (Goodman, 2007). Attitudes towards drinking are not homogeneous, however the stigma attached to female alcohol abuse significantly shapes the experience, rendering it different from the experience of a man. Alcohol abuse for women threatens societys formed image about women being good mothers or good wives. Problem drinking often goes undetected amongst women due to a fear of condemnation by society. Women experiencing alcohol problems can be viewed as ‘repulsive and disgraceful. Such cultural judgments can therefore adversely affect women seeking help (Sandmaier, 1992, p8). Theories of personality are located somewhere between the biological and psychological with suggestions that certain types of people will experience problems with alcohol dependency. The term ‘addictive personality is sometimes used but critics have questioned this, concluding that there is no one type of personality more likely to abuse substances or develop substance dependency (Nathan, 1988). What appears to be more accurate is that specific personality traits have been linked to substance misuse, for example, sensation seeking has been identified as a personality trait that may be common in those who choose to abuse substances (Zuckerman, 1979). Two main schools of thought appear to be evident in relation to understanding alcohol abuse; the biological standpoint and a more psychosocial belief structure. It is important to understand that theories provide useful contributions to understanding substance dependence but that no integrated theory exists. â€Å"As there is no one substance use experience and no one encompassing theory, there can be no one specific response.† (Petersen McBride, 2002, p36) What looks apparent is that society, for many years, has had an ambivalent attitude towards alcohol consumption. Confusion of attitudes inevitably result from shifts among policy makers in line with changes in dominant viewpoints. Predominant medical understandings of alcohol abuse which consider ‘alcoholism as a disease justify state intervention such as help through health care to address the damage caused to the body. Whatever the reasons behind substance abuse and dependency, research has shown there to be a huge cost, both financially and to human life. SECTION 2 Political responses to alcohol abuse In order to explore the States approach to tackling alcohol abuse, ideas around welfare are significant. As a result of the development of ‘alcoholism being recognised as a disease which requires treatment, distinguishable welfare needs have been identified. In reviewing ideas around welfare, the ‘welfare state in the UK differed from previous schemes of poverty relief due to its relatively universal coverage. The Social Insurance and Allied Services Report (1942) (the Beveridge Report) provided the proposals which allowed for the creation of the welfare state. The idea was to provide universal benefits to all and to address issues such as unemployment, poverty and disease. Critics argued that the creation of a ‘welfare state under Beveridges original proposal was excessively expensive, could not be financially maintained after the post war boom period and would create an unwillingness to work. Since 1979, reforms have been evident across all government sectors with more of an emphasis being placed on the responsibility of the individual. The Social Security Act (1986) brought about major structural changes to the social security system. In relation to benefits, means testing and compulsory conditions to specific benefits were established. For example, invalidity benefit for those who were unable to work due to ill health, which included alcohol dependent service users, was changed to incapacity benefit requiring all but the severely disabled, below pension age, to become job seekers. This brought about a new culture towards welfare which the ‘New Labour government elected in the 1997 election were quick to embrace. Alcock et al (2008) highlight that in analysing current political attitudes, an account of social policy now is an account of the shape it has been given by the New Labour Government in power. The Government believes that paid work has many rewards, for example, it increases independence, health and well being. The government wants to provide the opportunity for as many people as possible to access employment and share such rewards. Employment policies occupy a central but controversial place in debates about the future of welfare. Welfare-to work programmes for those who are able to work have been introduced in an attempt to move away from the ‘old passive benefit system (Alcock et al, 2008, p342). Developments have seen groups that had previously not been expected to find paid work, for example, people with disabilities, now being include d in this approach. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) which applies to England, Wales and Scotland sets out the framework necessary for the future abolition of Income Support, and the movement of claimants of that benefit to Jobseekers Allowance with differing degrees of conditionality, or to Employment and Support Allowance. The Act provides for those who have problems with alcohol to be directed to make, and comply with, a rehabilitation plan. Concern about the negative consequences of alcohol abuse has reached a significantly high point on the current political agenda. At a national level the problems associated with alcohol abuse is recognised as a priority by the Government. Local governments have developed their own frameworks for addressing alcohol related harm, for example, ‘Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action (Scottish Government, 2009). The role alcohol plays in the UKs economy can be both positive and negative. There are wide-reaching economic benefits derived from alcohol and alcohol consumption such as the provision of employment and tax revenues. The total value of the UK drinks market exceeds  £30 billion. The justification for alcohol excise duties ensures that the consumer directly contributes to any costs that alcohol consumption imposes on society as alcoholic drink is subject to both excise and VAT. Revenue for the Exchequer is substantial and has been increasing for the last 30 years. The alcoholic drinks industry reports to generate approximately one million jobs across the whole supply chain. The British Beer and Pub Association reports that there are over one million people employed in hotels, restaurants, pubs and clubs (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2008). It is evident that alcohol plays an important role in the success of certain parts of industry in UK society. In relation to the harm caused by alcohol in Scotland, there were over 40,000 hospital admissions in 2007-8 due to alcohol related illness and injury and deaths related to alcohol have more than doubled in the last 15 years. Rates of liver cirrhosis in Scotland are growing faster than anywhere else in the world and life expectancy in some parts of Scotland has fallen significantly short of life expectancy elsewhere. Research suggests that alcohol plays a significant part in these inequalities (Scottish Government, 2009). Research has shown that drinking alcohol in Scotland is a common occurrence for the majority of young people between the ages of 12 and 15 and that the problem with underage drinking is rising (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). If people are drinking at a younger age they are at greater risk of developing dependencies, experiencing health difficulties or becoming economically inactive, all of which will have a detrimental effect on the economy. To address the problem of underage drinking initiatives and proposals are ongoing. In 2008, certain councils piloted local bans on under-21s using off-licenses. Results indicated that the level of assaults, vandalism and general complaints about young people fell significantly. These pilots were viewed successfully but critics argue that governments need to focus on wider issues such as poverty in order to change Scotlands attitude to alcohol (The Times, 2008). The regulation of the sale of alcohol has a long history in UK society. Whilst the minimum age of eighteen years old to purchase alcohol has remained the same, the variety of outlets licensed to sell alcohol and the opening times of these has changed dramatically. Tensions exist for government in relation to the deregulation of alcohol along with the wider availability of it and concerns about Scotlands problematic relationship with alcohol. Current government policy appears to be tailored towards the health benefits of reducing alcohol consumption and dependency and addressing the detrimental effects on health services and other related social problems. This appears to be the Governments focus regardless of the opportunity to raise substantial revenue through the taxation of alcohol. Such changes in political attitudes towards alcohol abuse have brought about firmer regulations governing the sale and possession of alcohol, for example, The Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 represents th e biggest changes to the Licensing System in Scotland in over thirty years. The Act increases responsibility for those who are involved in the sale of alcohol and places restrictions on drinks promotions, for example, Happy Hours and two-for-one promotions can no longer be used by licensed premises. Recent reforms relate to the Scottish Governments introduction of the Alcohol Bill. This Bill proposes a number of measures to tackle alcohol-related harm including a 40 pence per unit minimum price (Scottish Government, 2009). However critics argue that pricing measures will not tackle the underlying reasons why people drink harmfully. Changes in regulations have came about to address issues such as public disorder and underage drinking as alcohol abuse is significantly linked to these. Law and order and health are just some of many Government departments which are affected by alcohol-related harm. The total cost to UK society is vast. The National Social Marketing Centre in 2007 estimated a cost  £55.1 billion. This estimate was composed of  £21 billion cost to individuals and families/households,  £2.8 billion cost to public health and care services,  £2.1 billion cost to the Criminal Justice System, Education and Social Services,  £7.3 billion cost to employers (includes days lost to affects of alcohol abuse) and  £21.9 billion in human cost (reduced quality of life adjusted years) (House of Commons, 2009). The increasing cost of alcohol abuse and related concerns are therefore key considerations for government. SECTION 3 Need for change? During this time of economic recession, the government is paying significant attention to welfare reform. Government publications such as Raising Expectations and Increasing Support: Reforming Welfare for the Future (2008) detail plans for the future as part of New Labours vision for a personalised welfare state. There appears to be a number of reasons why the government wants to increase employment levels, helping to explain why the governments focus has been on welfare reforms. The rate of worklessness, that is, those detached from the labour market, for example, alcohol-dependent and economically inactive individuals is significant. The Office for National Statistics (2009) reported that the number of working-age people in workless households in April-June 2009 reached 4.8 million. This was a rise of 500,000 from the previous year. The number of workless households with children reached 1.9 million, highlighting a rise of 170,000. The percentage of households in which no adults worked also increased by 1.1 percentage points from the previous year. These s reflect the highest rates since 1999 and the highest year-on-year increase since 1997. Increasing the number of economically active in society is crucial for government as they fund the economically dependent. Worklessness is linked to poor health and poverty and both poverty and worklessness are intergenerational; a working household is not only less likely to be in poverty, but also children living in the household are less likely to be in poverty as adults (Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2007). Some argue that benefit payments accompanied with weak or no work expectations trap the very people they are supposed to help. Worklessness and the increasing cost of alcohol abuse are therefore key considerations for current government and help to explain reasons for change. Recognition that the number of people over state pension age has exceeded the number of children has raised government concerns. The dilemma of an ageing population has caused alarm for both public and private sectors, for example, concerns relate to pensions, the size of the workforce and the capacities of the health and social services. Alcock et al (2008) point out: â€Å"For governments, high rates of employment boost tax revenues, reduce spending on social security benefits and make it easier to fund other social policies and meet the anticipated costs of an aging population† (Alcock et al., 2008, p.311). The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) points out that the new Employment and Support Allowance focuses on enabling disabled people and individuals with a health condition to engage in appropriate work, if they are able. The government has indicated that over 2.6 million people depend on incapacity benefits in the UK and that nine out of ten new claimants say that they want to return to work. The government cites this as one of the reasons why change has occurred (DWP, 2008). The idea that alcohol dependent service users are required to find suitable work raises questions about the availability, types of jobs and the level of pay required to help families out of poverty. Alcoholism is seen to have both direct and indirect effects on earnings and employment. Productivity and reliability in the labour market can be affected by the physical and mental health problems linked with alcohol dependency. That is, sickness, hangover or late arrivals are work characteristics that lead to reduced reliability and productivity. Indirect effects relate to a possible lack of education if a dependency has prevented an individual from completing or advancing at school. This possible lack of education could lead to lower wages and a limited selection of jobs. Difficulties in maintaining employment may also be experienced by individuals who are alcohol dependent, as reduced reliability leads to job loss and decreased employability. Consequently the lack of work experience ca n lead to lower wages and earnings (MacPherson, 1998). However, having someone in work does not necessarily mean the household will not be poor; thus, debates continue in relation to the role that employment policies play in reducing poverty. The new Employment and Support Allowance places obligations upon disabled people, including alcohol dependent individuals judged to be capable of work. Creating ideas that centre on having norms which is to be in full time paid work is perhaps stigmatising and disadvantaging to those people whose capabilities mean they have to work less or at a slower rate. Critics would argue that the new system will make it difficult for individuals to refuse a job if they consider it beneath their dignity, thus raising questions about the value of autonomy in our society. Increasing the degree of conditionality in the benefit system could perhaps add strength to the argument that too often ‘poor people can be treated as though they have no right to pursue a career of their choice, how to allocate time between family responsibilities or work outside their home or how to meet their family responsibilities. Some would argue that ‘poor people do not receive the same minimum respect as other citizens (Young, 2002). SECTION 4 Practice issues, challenges and dilemmas Some people with disabilities need extra resources, equipment or personal care to function independently and/or benefit from welfare-to-work government policies. In relation to people who misuse alcohol and claim Employment and Support Allowance on the grounds of incapacity, this section will examine some of the current practice issues and the main challenges and dilemmas that can arise. Many people with substance misuse issues appear to lack serious motivation to change behaviour that could be described as self-destructive. In relation to what works to motivate people to change, research has shown that scare tactics and confronting individuals are likely to lead to a defensive reaction, whilst labeling an individual as an ‘alcoholic or ‘addict is unhelpful and does not support the person to change (Goodman, 2007). Setting goals is important, but for any assistance to be successful, such goals must be a shared aspiration between the individual and worker. How successful the new system will be in helping people who misuse alcohol return to work will perhaps be more related to how well it works with individuals in assessing what they are capable of and how effective it is in assessing what help and support service users need to manage their condition, rather than the increasing conditionality and penalties. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) gives Job Centre advisers the power to assess individuals for alcohol problems and to force those with a dependency to undergo treatment. Individuals who refuse will lose benefits. Critics argue that job Centre advisers do not have the training for this role, and that specialised drug and alcohol professionals would need to carry out such assessments. There is also concern whether drug and alcohol services have the resources to deal with the increased number of perhaps, involuntary clients. The charity Alcohol Concern estimates that only one in 18 individuals who have an alcohol dependency can to access treatment (Hunter, 2009). The focus on what works best with alcohol and drug problems is of great importance. Challenges arise from frustrations felt by workers seeing people with alcohol or drug problems repeatedly in and out of the ‘revolving door of services. Attempting to change a long term pattern of drinking is extremely difficult, with research showing that several or more attempts can be required. Petersen and McBride (2002) highlighted that: â€Å"The inability to stop using drugs and especially the inability to avoid returning to use are at the heart of what we mean by addiction. In this respect, the problem of relapse is one of the defining features of the addictive disorders† (Petersen and McBride, 2002, p189) If relapse is a defining feature of the addictive disorder, how do welfare changes which make more condition and create more complex systems incorporate this known feature of the addiction cycle? Dilemmas arise in relation to the new system and the lack of sensitivity to the particular conditions such as alcohol abuse with its relapse and periodic ‘down periods. Critics point out that an individuals alcohol dependency might be an indication that he or she is struggling to cope and that removing benefits could have detrimental effects. Removing or reducing alcohol dependent service users benefits could create more strain in their lives and make their alcohol issues worse. This, in turn, would be less likely to help individuals in getting back to work, and therefore the new system would have achieved the opposite of its intended purpose. How individuals would Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Introduction Government policies and assistance for people who misuse alcohol raise controversial issues for legislators, policymakers and practitioners alike. Goodman (2007) highlights that government policy adopts both a ‘carrot and ‘stick approach. While individuals who misuse substances are encouraged to seek treatment, there is also the threat that for those who choose not to engage in programmes, they run the risk of being targeted if they continue in their addiction. Thus those whose alcohol addiction has caused them to become involved in criminal/illegal activities and who refuse to engage with alcohol interventions face agencies using enforcement and prosecution if they continue with their behaviours. Harm caused by alcohol is Scotlands biggest health challenge. Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action was published to address Scotlands  £2.25 billion alcohol misuse problem. The governments focus is on reducing costs, recovery and making sure that people who need help are identified sooner and directed towards the right services (Scottish Government, 2009). In line with this, there have been significant changes in welfare policies for people who misuse alcohol. There is no clear of the number of people with drug and alcohol problems receiving social work interventions. Research is usually based on specialised practice teams, for example, teams working with children and families. Research suggests that approximately 25 per cent of children on child protection registers involve parental alcohol and or drug use. (Advisory Council on the Misuse of drugs (ACMD) 2003) while Hayden (2004) points out that higher estimates have been found among children and families services more broadly. Further research highlights that drug and alcohol misuse is prevalent with the many groups of people social workers often work with, for example, 44 per cent of people with mental ill health use substances in harmful or hazardous ways (Weaver et al, 2003) and among young people aged 14-15, research has shown that drinking alcohol is a regular occurrence (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). Gender is also an important area in the field of substance misuse with rese arch showing that it is often thought for it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man (Sandmaier, 1992). It would appear that the experience of alcohol abuse may be different for a man and a woman. My interest in addictions developed whilst on placement with a voluntary organisation working with young people involved with offending and/or anti social behaviour. The placement demonstrated the increase in the extent to which drug and alcohol use influences the involvement of young people in offending (Rutter et al, 1998). An opportunity whilst on a mental health placement to work with a woman experiencing severe emotional, behavioural and financial difficulties who was alcohol dependent alerted me to the profound effects of addiction, the effect of proposed policy changes and to some of the difficulties experienced whilst working with this client group. By 2009, the harm caused by alcohol and the cost to UK society had become a topical debate. Current downturns in the UK economic climate coupled with large number of economically inactive individuals and an increase in worklessness created much cause for concern. It was decided to focus this study on alcohol dependent service users in light of the new legislation in the UK which aimed to support individuals with health difficulties in getting back to work. Aims of the Research This research aim is to explore the experiences and perceptions of front line workers regarding the implication of the new Employment and Support Allowance for people who misuse alcohol and the implications this has for social work practice and will broadly cover issues such as: What difference, if any, has the introduction of the new Employment and Support Allowance made to work carried out with alcohol dependent service users? Should the implementation of this Allowance be subject to specific conditions? What is the experiences of working with alcohol dependent service users? Outline of the dissertation A review of the relevant literature is presented in chapter two in order to set the study in its legal, political and practice context. The approach and methods used to collect the data will be explored in chapter three. Chapter four presents and discusses the findings and chapter five presents the final analysis, draws some conclusions and makes some suggestions for future practice and research. All names including the name of the organisation in which the research is based have been changed in accordance with confidentiality agreements. Chapter 1 Literature Review INTRODUCTION This literature review is divided into four sections. Section one addresses, understandings of alcohol abuse. Political responses to alcohol abuse is the focus of section two. Section three explores the reasons for change and section four discusses practice issues, challenges and dilemmas. The terms alcohol addiction, alcoholism, and alcohol dependence have the same meaning. No one term is more serious than the other. Different terms have evolved over the years to overcome the negative stigma of addiction. Some people are not addicted to drugs or alcohol, but abuse them. The American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) uses specific criteria over a 12 month period to differentiate between dependence and abuse. If an individual fulfils the criteria for substance dependency then a diagnosis of substance abuse does not apply (Petersen McBride, 2002). For the purpose of this research, the term alcohol abuse will be used to describe individuals who abuse alcohol as well as those who are categorised as alcohol dependent. SECTION 1 Understandings of alcohol abuse The use of alcohol is long standing within Western culture. As the research has a focus on alcohol abuse, consideration must be given to the reasons why such a growth in excessive drinking emerged. The social changes stemming from the industrial revolution are therefore significant. Previous to these, ideas centred on the view that human beings were thought to be rational and exercised free will in relation to self enjoyment. Individuals were seen to exercise choice; â€Å"Drunkenness was a choice, albeit a sinful one, which some individuals made.† (Levine, 1978, p146) The movement of people from rural to urban areas because of the need for organised labour together with the growth in population meant that there were significantly high concentrations of people. Social problems emerged on an exceptional scale with excessive alcohol consumption and related safety at work issues causing great public concern. Problems relating to alcohol abuse thus became more socially significant. Many theories exist in relation to understanding the causes of alcohol abuse. Early explanations to problems with substance misuse focused on moral issues and the idea that alcohol consumption and ungodliness were linked. Individuals who had problems with drink were viewed as being ‘weak willed or ‘sinful with ‘treatment focusing on punishment or religious conversion (Petersen McBride, 2002, p34*). During the nineteenth century, scientific explanations began to emerge in relation to understanding the spread of excessive drinking behaviour in society; this was the first time that the idea of alcoholism as a disease was considered (Collins, 1990). Applying such a medical analysis allowed for a new awareness, understanding and even sympathetic attitude towards alcohol consumption and its related problems. Pressure on the State to ensure that alcoholism was recognised as a disease which required specific medical attention was now evident. Petersen McBride (2002) highlight that substance use is different from dependence or addiction. When a person tries a substance once or for the first few times, it is seen as ‘experimental. Substance misuse can also be ‘recreational meaning a person may misuse a substance, for example, alcohol, occasionally or on a social basis. The individual is seen as ‘dependent if they have developed a dependent pattern on a substance and misuse it continually. Critics argue that the disease approach focuses the attention only on the dependent problem drinker, the drinker who is experiencing severe physical and social consequences. Problems can occur at any of these stages with different interventions available, for example, the ‘disease model supports the argument for total abstinence and is broadly supported by Alcoholics Anonymous. However this model will not work for everyone. Alternatively, models which focus on harm reduction through controlled drinking, for example , the ‘wheel of change model, are also accepted within drug and alcohol services (Goodman, 2007). Difficulties arise when categorising individuals and in relation to the language used; for example what constitutes recreational use? What is the difference between dependence and addiction? The language used within alcohol literature varies greatly. It is possible for someone to be in all three stages at once; for example someone who is dependent on alcohol may recreationally misuse cannabis. There appears to be a move away from socially constructed terms such as addiction, with research highlighting that terms such as ‘addict or ‘alcoholic carry with them a negative connation and are powerful labels. Goodman (2007) points out that it is better to call a person drug dependent, where the dependency is the compulsion to keep taking drugs. There is no one clear definition of alcohol abuse as a disease. Kessel Walton (1989) highlight that ‘alcoholism is a difficult subject to study and alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. Defining what constitutes an ‘alcoholic and what constitutes a ‘non-alcoholic is difficult. Collins (1990) highlights that; â€Å"It is now accepted that problem drinking exists on a continuum, with normal or non-problem drinking at one end and severe dependence at the other† (Collins, 1990, p49*) Developments in research into dependency have led to risk factors such as stress, social environment, emotional health, genetic predisposition, age, and gender being identified. For example, studies have shown that children born from alcohol dependent parents who are adopted into families with no dependency issues are at greater risk of becoming alcohol dependent than the rest of the population. This would suggest that there is some genetic predisposition to alcohol dependence. Children born and raised by alcohol dependent parents have an even greater rate of becoming alcohol dependent, although here learnt behaviour may also be a factor (ref). Psychological theories such as Social Learning Theory relate behaviour to processes that take place within the individuals mind rather than the physical structure of the brain. Behaviour is believed to be conditioned by the expectations of the individual in carrying out a particular action, for example, immediate short term effects of alcohol can create feelings of enjoyment or eliminate unpleasant withdrawals. In the long term the advantages of stopping may be less rewarding than the short term gratification of prolonged misuse. Certain studies question the idea of rewarded behaviour and that addiction is a consequence. Chein (1964) found that when normal subjects were given narcotics, although they found the experience pleasurable, they did not become compulsive drug users, suggesting that drugs are not inherently rewarding as Social Learning Theory purports. Furthermore, it was found that a percentage of people who developed dependencies became dependent anyway despite having found the initial drug experience unpleasant. Regardless of these concerns, the conditioning model is well supported and highlights once again that addictive behavior is complex and difficult to place into a single model. Social Learning theory is helpful in explaining the differences in social attitudes to alcohol abuse in women. Sandmaier (1992) surveyed attitudes towards alcohol abuse among four hundred women and men of varying socioeconomic classes, ethnicity and age in the United States and found that the majority thought it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man. Labelling someone as an ‘alcoholic can be stigmatising and affect an individuals self-efficacy and self-esteem (Goodman, 2007). Attitudes towards drinking are not homogeneous, however the stigma attached to female alcohol abuse significantly shapes the experience, rendering it different from the experience of a man. Alcohol abuse for women threatens societys formed image about women being good mothers or good wives. Problem drinking often goes undetected amongst women due to a fear of condemnation by society. Women experiencing alcohol problems can be viewed as ‘repulsive and disgraceful. Such cultural judgments can therefore adversely affect women seeking help (Sandmaier, 1992, p8). Theories of personality are located somewhere between the biological and psychological with suggestions that certain types of people will experience problems with alcohol dependency. The term ‘addictive personality is sometimes used but critics have questioned this, concluding that there is no one type of personality more likely to abuse substances or develop substance dependency (Nathan, 1988). What appears to be more accurate is that specific personality traits have been linked to substance misuse, for example, sensation seeking has been identified as a personality trait that may be common in those who choose to abuse substances (Zuckerman, 1979). Two main schools of thought appear to be evident in relation to understanding alcohol abuse; the biological standpoint and a more psychosocial belief structure. It is important to understand that theories provide useful contributions to understanding substance dependence but that no integrated theory exists. â€Å"As there is no one substance use experience and no one encompassing theory, there can be no one specific response.† (Petersen McBride, 2002, p36) What looks apparent is that society, for many years, has had an ambivalent attitude towards alcohol consumption. Confusion of attitudes inevitably result from shifts among policy makers in line with changes in dominant viewpoints. Predominant medical understandings of alcohol abuse which consider ‘alcoholism as a disease justify state intervention such as help through health care to address the damage caused to the body. Whatever the reasons behind substance abuse and dependency, research has shown there to be a huge cost, both financially and to human life. SECTION 2 Political responses to alcohol abuse In order to explore the States approach to tackling alcohol abuse, ideas around welfare are significant. As a result of the development of ‘alcoholism being recognised as a disease which requires treatment, distinguishable welfare needs have been identified. In reviewing ideas around welfare, the ‘welfare state in the UK differed from previous schemes of poverty relief due to its relatively universal coverage. The Social Insurance and Allied Services Report (1942) (the Beveridge Report) provided the proposals which allowed for the creation of the welfare state. The idea was to provide universal benefits to all and to address issues such as unemployment, poverty and disease. Critics argued that the creation of a ‘welfare state under Beveridges original proposal was excessively expensive, could not be financially maintained after the post war boom period and would create an unwillingness to work. Since 1979, reforms have been evident across all government sectors with more of an emphasis being placed on the responsibility of the individual. The Social Security Act (1986) brought about major structural changes to the social security system. In relation to benefits, means testing and compulsory conditions to specific benefits were established. For example, invalidity benefit for those who were unable to work due to ill health, which included alcohol dependent service users, was changed to incapacity benefit requiring all but the severely disabled, below pension age, to become job seekers. This brought about a new culture towards welfare which the ‘New Labour government elected in the 1997 election were quick to embrace. Alcock et al (2008) highlight that in analysing current political attitudes, an account of social policy now is an account of the shape it has been given by the New Labour Government in power. The Government believes that paid work has many rewards, for example, it increases independence, health and well being. The government wants to provide the opportunity for as many people as possible to access employment and share such rewards. Employment policies occupy a central but controversial place in debates about the future of welfare. Welfare-to work programmes for those who are able to work have been introduced in an attempt to move away from the ‘old passive benefit system (Alcock et al, 2008, p342). Developments have seen groups that had previously not been expected to find paid work, for example, people with disabilities, now being include d in this approach. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) which applies to England, Wales and Scotland sets out the framework necessary for the future abolition of Income Support, and the movement of claimants of that benefit to Jobseekers Allowance with differing degrees of conditionality, or to Employment and Support Allowance. The Act provides for those who have problems with alcohol to be directed to make, and comply with, a rehabilitation plan. Concern about the negative consequences of alcohol abuse has reached a significantly high point on the current political agenda. At a national level the problems associated with alcohol abuse is recognised as a priority by the Government. Local governments have developed their own frameworks for addressing alcohol related harm, for example, ‘Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action (Scottish Government, 2009). The role alcohol plays in the UKs economy can be both positive and negative. There are wide-reaching economic benefits derived from alcohol and alcohol consumption such as the provision of employment and tax revenues. The total value of the UK drinks market exceeds  £30 billion. The justification for alcohol excise duties ensures that the consumer directly contributes to any costs that alcohol consumption imposes on society as alcoholic drink is subject to both excise and VAT. Revenue for the Exchequer is substantial and has been increasing for the last 30 years. The alcoholic drinks industry reports to generate approximately one million jobs across the whole supply chain. The British Beer and Pub Association reports that there are over one million people employed in hotels, restaurants, pubs and clubs (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2008). It is evident that alcohol plays an important role in the success of certain parts of industry in UK society. In relation to the harm caused by alcohol in Scotland, there were over 40,000 hospital admissions in 2007-8 due to alcohol related illness and injury and deaths related to alcohol have more than doubled in the last 15 years. Rates of liver cirrhosis in Scotland are growing faster than anywhere else in the world and life expectancy in some parts of Scotland has fallen significantly short of life expectancy elsewhere. Research suggests that alcohol plays a significant part in these inequalities (Scottish Government, 2009). Research has shown that drinking alcohol in Scotland is a common occurrence for the majority of young people between the ages of 12 and 15 and that the problem with underage drinking is rising (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). If people are drinking at a younger age they are at greater risk of developing dependencies, experiencing health difficulties or becoming economically inactive, all of which will have a detrimental effect on the economy. To address the problem of underage drinking initiatives and proposals are ongoing. In 2008, certain councils piloted local bans on under-21s using off-licenses. Results indicated that the level of assaults, vandalism and general complaints about young people fell significantly. These pilots were viewed successfully but critics argue that governments need to focus on wider issues such as poverty in order to change Scotlands attitude to alcohol (The Times, 2008). The regulation of the sale of alcohol has a long history in UK society. Whilst the minimum age of eighteen years old to purchase alcohol has remained the same, the variety of outlets licensed to sell alcohol and the opening times of these has changed dramatically. Tensions exist for government in relation to the deregulation of alcohol along with the wider availability of it and concerns about Scotlands problematic relationship with alcohol. Current government policy appears to be tailored towards the health benefits of reducing alcohol consumption and dependency and addressing the detrimental effects on health services and other related social problems. This appears to be the Governments focus regardless of the opportunity to raise substantial revenue through the taxation of alcohol. Such changes in political attitudes towards alcohol abuse have brought about firmer regulations governing the sale and possession of alcohol, for example, The Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 represents th e biggest changes to the Licensing System in Scotland in over thirty years. The Act increases responsibility for those who are involved in the sale of alcohol and places restrictions on drinks promotions, for example, Happy Hours and two-for-one promotions can no longer be used by licensed premises. Recent reforms relate to the Scottish Governments introduction of the Alcohol Bill. This Bill proposes a number of measures to tackle alcohol-related harm including a 40 pence per unit minimum price (Scottish Government, 2009). However critics argue that pricing measures will not tackle the underlying reasons why people drink harmfully. Changes in regulations have came about to address issues such as public disorder and underage drinking as alcohol abuse is significantly linked to these. Law and order and health are just some of many Government departments which are affected by alcohol-related harm. The total cost to UK society is vast. The National Social Marketing Centre in 2007 estimated a cost  £55.1 billion. This estimate was composed of  £21 billion cost to individuals and families/households,  £2.8 billion cost to public health and care services,  £2.1 billion cost to the Criminal Justice System, Education and Social Services,  £7.3 billion cost to employers (includes days lost to affects of alcohol abuse) and  £21.9 billion in human cost (reduced quality of life adjusted years) (House of Commons, 2009). The increasing cost of alcohol abuse and related concerns are therefore key considerations for government. SECTION 3 Need for change? During this time of economic recession, the government is paying significant attention to welfare reform. Government publications such as Raising Expectations and Increasing Support: Reforming Welfare for the Future (2008) detail plans for the future as part of New Labours vision for a personalised welfare state. There appears to be a number of reasons why the government wants to increase employment levels, helping to explain why the governments focus has been on welfare reforms. The rate of worklessness, that is, those detached from the labour market, for example, alcohol-dependent and economically inactive individuals is significant. The Office for National Statistics (2009) reported that the number of working-age people in workless households in April-June 2009 reached 4.8 million. This was a rise of 500,000 from the previous year. The number of workless households with children reached 1.9 million, highlighting a rise of 170,000. The percentage of households in which no adults worked also increased by 1.1 percentage points from the previous year. These s reflect the highest rates since 1999 and the highest year-on-year increase since 1997. Increasing the number of economically active in society is crucial for government as they fund the economically dependent. Worklessness is linked to poor health and poverty and both poverty and worklessness are intergenerational; a working household is not only less likely to be in poverty, but also children living in the household are less likely to be in poverty as adults (Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2007). Some argue that benefit payments accompanied with weak or no work expectations trap the very people they are supposed to help. Worklessness and the increasing cost of alcohol abuse are therefore key considerations for current government and help to explain reasons for change. Recognition that the number of people over state pension age has exceeded the number of children has raised government concerns. The dilemma of an ageing population has caused alarm for both public and private sectors, for example, concerns relate to pensions, the size of the workforce and the capacities of the health and social services. Alcock et al (2008) point out: â€Å"For governments, high rates of employment boost tax revenues, reduce spending on social security benefits and make it easier to fund other social policies and meet the anticipated costs of an aging population† (Alcock et al., 2008, p.311). The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) points out that the new Employment and Support Allowance focuses on enabling disabled people and individuals with a health condition to engage in appropriate work, if they are able. The government has indicated that over 2.6 million people depend on incapacity benefits in the UK and that nine out of ten new claimants say that they want to return to work. The government cites this as one of the reasons why change has occurred (DWP, 2008). The idea that alcohol dependent service users are required to find suitable work raises questions about the availability, types of jobs and the level of pay required to help families out of poverty. Alcoholism is seen to have both direct and indirect effects on earnings and employment. Productivity and reliability in the labour market can be affected by the physical and mental health problems linked with alcohol dependency. That is, sickness, hangover or late arrivals are work characteristics that lead to reduced reliability and productivity. Indirect effects relate to a possible lack of education if a dependency has prevented an individual from completing or advancing at school. This possible lack of education could lead to lower wages and a limited selection of jobs. Difficulties in maintaining employment may also be experienced by individuals who are alcohol dependent, as reduced reliability leads to job loss and decreased employability. Consequently the lack of work experience ca n lead to lower wages and earnings (MacPherson, 1998). However, having someone in work does not necessarily mean the household will not be poor; thus, debates continue in relation to the role that employment policies play in reducing poverty. The new Employment and Support Allowance places obligations upon disabled people, including alcohol dependent individuals judged to be capable of work. Creating ideas that centre on having norms which is to be in full time paid work is perhaps stigmatising and disadvantaging to those people whose capabilities mean they have to work less or at a slower rate. Critics would argue that the new system will make it difficult for individuals to refuse a job if they consider it beneath their dignity, thus raising questions about the value of autonomy in our society. Increasing the degree of conditionality in the benefit system could perhaps add strength to the argument that too often ‘poor people can be treated as though they have no right to pursue a career of their choice, how to allocate time between family responsibilities or work outside their home or how to meet their family responsibilities. Some would argue that ‘poor people do not receive the same minimum respect as other citizens (Young, 2002). SECTION 4 Practice issues, challenges and dilemmas Some people with disabilities need extra resources, equipment or personal care to function independently and/or benefit from welfare-to-work government policies. In relation to people who misuse alcohol and claim Employment and Support Allowance on the grounds of incapacity, this section will examine some of the current practice issues and the main challenges and dilemmas that can arise. Many people with substance misuse issues appear to lack serious motivation to change behaviour that could be described as self-destructive. In relation to what works to motivate people to change, research has shown that scare tactics and confronting individuals are likely to lead to a defensive reaction, whilst labeling an individual as an ‘alcoholic or ‘addict is unhelpful and does not support the person to change (Goodman, 2007). Setting goals is important, but for any assistance to be successful, such goals must be a shared aspiration between the individual and worker. How successful the new system will be in helping people who misuse alcohol return to work will perhaps be more related to how well it works with individuals in assessing what they are capable of and how effective it is in assessing what help and support service users need to manage their condition, rather than the increasing conditionality and penalties. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) gives Job Centre advisers the power to assess individuals for alcohol problems and to force those with a dependency to undergo treatment. Individuals who refuse will lose benefits. Critics argue that job Centre advisers do not have the training for this role, and that specialised drug and alcohol professionals would need to carry out such assessments. There is also concern whether drug and alcohol services have the resources to deal with the increased number of perhaps, involuntary clients. The charity Alcohol Concern estimates that only one in 18 individuals who have an alcohol dependency can to access treatment (Hunter, 2009). The focus on what works best with alcohol and drug problems is of great importance. Challenges arise from frustrations felt by workers seeing people with alcohol or drug problems repeatedly in and out of the ‘revolving door of services. Attempting to change a long term pattern of drinking is extremely difficult, with research showing that several or more attempts can be required. Petersen and McBride (2002) highlighted that: â€Å"The inability to stop using drugs and especially the inability to avoid returning to use are at the heart of what we mean by addiction. In this respect, the problem of relapse is one of the defining features of the addictive disorders† (Petersen and McBride, 2002, p189) If relapse is a defining feature of the addictive disorder, how do welfare changes which make more condition and create more complex systems incorporate this known feature of the addiction cycle? Dilemmas arise in relation to the new system and the lack of sensitivity to the particular conditions such as alcohol abuse with its relapse and periodic ‘down periods. Critics point out that an individuals alcohol dependency might be an indication that he or she is struggling to cope and that removing benefits could have detrimental effects. Removing or reducing alcohol dependent service users benefits could create more strain in their lives and make their alcohol issues worse. This, in turn, would be less likely to help individuals in getting back to work, and therefore the new system would have achieved the opposite of its intended purpose. How individuals would